Before Christianity and Islam reached the Horn of Africa, the Oromo had already developed a sophisticated monotheistic faith centred on Waaqa, the Creator of all things
In the highlands and lowlands of the Horn of Africa, long before the arrival of Christianity and Islam, the Oromo people worshipped one supreme being. Their faith, known as Waaqeffannaa, was not a primitive belief system—it was a comprehensive worldview that shaped every aspect of Oromo life, from governance to morality, from family to ecology.
The name itself reveals its essence: Waaqeffannaa is derived from Waaqa, the Oromo word for God, representing “the faith or the practice of worshipping Waaqa” . A believer in Waaqa was called a waaqeffataa (male) or waaqeffattuu (female), and the act of praying was called waaqeffachuu . This faith, which existed “from time immemorial,” served as the foundation of Oromo identity for centuries.
Waaqa Tokkicha: The One God
Historical sources reveal that the Oromo religion was neither Christianity nor Islam but an indigenous religion known as Waaqeffannaa . Unlike many other African societies that worshipped multiple deities or carved idols, the Oromo were monotheistic, believing in “one Waaqayoo, which approximates to the English word God” .
“The Oromo never substitute other gods or curved statues for their Waaqa” . Even early European observers noted this distinctive feature. M. de Almeida remarked that “the Gallas [Oromo] are neither Christians, moors nor heathens, for they have no idols to worship” .
Waaqa was understood through a rich tapestry of divine attributes that reflect a sophisticated theological understanding :
- Uumaa: The creator of everything in the world
- Hunda Beekaa: The all-knowing (omniscient)
- Hunda Danda’aa: The all-powerful (omnipotent)
- Hundaa Tola’a: The all-good (omnibenevolent)
- Qulqulluu: Pure
- Gonkumaa Kan Hin Duune: The immortal, the eternal
- The source and lover of dhugaa (truth)
For the Oromo, “Waaqa is not a created being. Waaqa does not have an elder. There is nothing that has power over Waaqa” . The Oromo also believe that “Waaqa is physically inaccessible, but … manifests himself through his deeds” .
Waaqa Gurraacha: The Black God
The Oromo addressed the Creator as Waaqa Gurraacha—the Black God. The term “black” here does not refer to human skin colour but signifies the purity and supremacy of God . It also represents the mysterious, invisible, and all-encompassing nature of the divine. Oromo prayers often begin with the words, “Gurraacha garaa garbaa, tokkicha maqaan dhibbaa” —”black as the water of the sea, a single with hundreds of names” . This is a poetic declaration of God’s unity, purity, and incomprehensible nature.
Waaqa and Lafa: The Sacred Bond
For the Oromo, Waaqa and Lafa (the Earth) are inseparable . They consider the Earth as their mother and Waaqa as their father. This relationship is expressed in everyday language, in blessings, oaths, curses, and proverbs :
- “Waaqaa fi laftaaf jedhii na gargaari” (Help me by the name of God and Earth)
- “Waaqaa fi lafa sodaadhu” (Fear/respect God and Earth)
- “Waaqaa fi lafti argeera” (God and Earth saw it)
The Oromo believe that “they suck the breast of the Earth as the baby sucks its mother’s breast. All things originate from the Earth and depend on the resources of the Earth for their survival” . This profound connection to nature underpins Oromo environmental ethics.
The Core Concepts: Ayyaana, Uumaa, and Safuu
The Oromo worldview rests on three interconnected and inseparable concepts: Ayyaana, Uumaa, and Safuu . These concepts form the foundation of Waaqeffannaa and shape every aspect of Oromo life.
Ayyaana: Divine Manifestations
The power of Waaqa is manifested through Ayyaana, a divine spirit that serves as an intermediary between God and the world . According to Gemechu Megerssa, Ayyaana is “both that causes something to come into being and to become that which it has caused” . The Ayyaana are not additional gods but manifestations of the divine essence of Waaqa.
All creatures (Uuma) are believed to be assigned an Ayyaana by Waaqa for guidance and protection . The Oromo believe in two kinds of Ayyaana :
- Good Ayyaana: Brings health, wealth, prosperity, and the survival of children
- Evil Ayyaana: Causes misfortune, sickness, barrenness, and disrupts normal life
Uumaa: Creation as Sacred
Uumaa is an Oromo term that represents “the entire physical world and the living things and divine beings contained within it, animal, vegetable, mineral and spiritual” . The term is derived from the verb uumu, meaning “to create” . The Oromo believe that Waaqa, through Ayyaana, creates all things. “It is only Waaga who can create all things” .
The most sacred element of Uumaa is the Odaa tree (sycamore), considered a symbol of justice and often used as a site for prayer, community gatherings, and conflict resolution.
Safuu: The Moral Order
Safuu is the moral and spiritual balance that Waaqa offered to human beings . It is the ethical foundation upon which all human action should be founded. Safuu governs relationships between humans, the community, the divine, and nature.
“Safuu keeps the balance between Uumaa (Creator) and Uumamaa (creatures/physical world); between human and non-human nature as well as between Ayyaana and Uumaa (Waaqa)” . Breaking Safuu through lying, stealing, harming nature, or breaking sacred oaths is a grave sin (cubbuu) that disrupts the harmony of the universe .
No Devil, No Hell
A distinctive feature of early Waaqeffannaa is the absence of a devil figure. The Oromo did not have the concept of setana (Satan) until the advent of Christianity . Similarly, there is no concept of hell or eternal punishment. The consequence of sin is experienced during earthly life, not in an afterlife . This places responsibility squarely on human beings to create a just and balanced world here and now.
The Qaalluu Institution
The Qaalluu (male priest) and Qaallitti (female priestess) were central to Waaqeffannaa . The term Qaalluu derives from the Oromiffa word qull, meaning “pure, holy, sacred, blameless, black” . The Qaalluu and Qaallitti are “messengers of Waaqa because they are attached to the Ayyaana” .
The Qaalluu institution is one of the most important in Oromo culture and has political importance, even though the Qaalluu himself does not possess political power as such. They play a spiritual and political role in the Gadaa system of governance . The Qaalluu institution is closely linked with the Gadaa system, the indigenous democratic governance structure of the Oromo people .
The Gadaa System: Governance in Harmony with Waaqa
The Waaqeffannaa practice is closely linked with the Gadaa system, the indigenous democratic governance structure of the Oromo people . The Gadaa system is recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
According to Asafa Jalata, the Oromo knowledge of society and the world is classified into two types :
- Beekumsa addaa: Cultural and customary knowledge
- Beekumsa seeraa: Knowledge of laws, subdivided into:
- Seera Waaqaa: The law of God—immutable
- Seera Namaa: The laws of human beings—changeable through consensus and democratic means
The Gadaa system embodies principles of equality, participatory democracy, and the peaceful transfer of power. The Qaalluu and Qaallitti “condemn tyranny and support the democratic Gadaa system” . They have the power to give or withhold blessings to the Gadaa leadership as they see fit, serving as a check on political power.
The Myth of the Lost Book
Unlike Christianity and Islam, Waaqeffannaa has no scriptures or holy books . A significant Oromo tradition explains why. According to de Salviac, “in the beginning Waaqa also gave the Oromo a book but a cow swallowed it. Waaqa got angry and did not give them a second book. The Oromo are therefore forced to look for the lost book in the intestines of the cows to see the future” .
This myth may explain why, among the Oromo peasants, whenever an animal is slaughtered, experts are called upon to read the fat covering the stomach of the slaughtered animal. In recent years, followers of Waaqeffannaa have produced popular and scholarly articles and also stage religious events and rituals .
Historical Context: The Cushitic Legacy
The Oromo belong to the Cushitic stock, one of the four major linguistic and cultural groups in Northeast Africa . Contrary to the conventional views of a number of scholars which hold that the Oromo were alien to Ethiopia until the middle of the 16th century, historical, anthropological, and linguistic evidences unequivocally testify that the Oromo were one of the indigenous and most ancient peoples of the region .
A sky God is essential to the Cushitic religion as the Supreme Being and Father of the Universe . Among both the Oromo and the Somali, the name Waaqa/Waaq is popular . For W. Schmidt, one of the anthropologists in the mid-1930s, the Oromo belief in Waaqa was the example of “early monotheism” of the original unspoiled attitude of people to God .
The Impact of External Religions
While Waaqeffannaa was the indigenous faith of the Oromo, it was not static. The introduction of Christianity and Islam brought significant changes. However, the core belief in one God remained remarkably resilient. “Whether the Oromo have become Christians or Muslims, however, a true belief in one God (Waaqeffanna dhugaa) remains the basic tenet of Oromo identity” .
Some scholars have noted that “the historical symbiotic relationship between Waaqeffana and the major religions reflecting a significant degree of tolerance on the part of the former” . Many Oromo Christians and Muslims continued to maintain cultural rituals, demonstrating the deep cultural roots of Waaqeffannaa.
Conclusion
The early history of Waaqeffannaa is a story of a sophisticated, monotheistic faith that guided the Oromo people for centuries before external religions arrived. It was a faith of balance, justice, and harmony, embodied in the principles of Safuu, the institutions of the Gadaa system, and the rituals that marked the rhythm of Oromo life. Its core belief in one supreme God, Waaqa, “from time immemorial,” remains a fundamental aspect of Oromo identity to this day .
“For the Oromo Waaqeffanna religion is not only a set of beliefs or sacred, but also it is a way of life, the basis of cultural formation, and one way in which Oromo identity and moral values are maintained” .